By Maurice "Duc" DuClos
Introduction
In the labyrinthine world of military doctrine, few transitions have been as misunderstood as the shift from Psychological Warfare (PSYWAR) to Psychological Operations (PSYOP). This semantic evolution, occurring primarily during the mid-20th century, represents far more than mere terminological housekeeping. It embodies a fundamental reconceptualization of how military institutions approach influence operations, reflecting deeper changes in political sensibilities, strategic thinking, and operational frameworks (Paddock, 1989). However, this evolution has inadvertently obscured crucial distinctions between psychological influence as a primary strategic effort versus a supporting capability—distinctions that carry significant implications for contemporary military operations.
The Narrative-Formula Paradigm: A Theoretical Framework
The evolution from PSYWAR to PSYOP must be examined through the lens of the Narrative-Formula paradigm, an analytical framework that distinguishes between institutional storytelling and operational methodology. This distinction proves crucial for understanding how military institutions both describe and execute their activities.
Military concepts inherently possess both narrative and formula components, each serving distinct purposes. The narrative component encompasses how an organization describes, justifies, and contextualizes its activities, serving essential functions in organizational identity, public relations, and institutional legitimacy. The formula component comprises the technical frameworks, methodological approaches, and operational procedures that guide actual execution (Lord & Barnett, 1989).
The conflation of these components creates several types of doctrinal confusion with significant operational implications:
First, narrative evolution often occurs independently of formulaic requirements. Organizations may modify their narrative presentation for political or institutional reasons without corresponding changes to operational formulas. This disconnect can create misalignment between institutional descriptions and operational realities.
Second, formula requirements sometimes conflict with narrative preferences. An organization's preferred narrative about its activities may not align with the technical requirements for executing those activities. This misalignment can create operational friction when practitioners navigate between narrative expectations and formulaic necessities.
Third, discussions of military concepts often fail to distinguish whether they address narrative or formula components. This ambiguity leads to confusion in planning and execution, as stakeholders may unknowingly speak past each other while addressing different aspects of the same concept.
Beyond Semantics: Understanding the Warfare to Operations Divide
The distinction between "warfare" and "operations" carries weight well beyond linguistic preference. Military strategists invoking warfare speak to a comprehensive, strategic-level endeavor that stands as a primary means of achieving national objectives. Operations, conversely, suggests a more tactical, subordinate set of activities that support broader strategic goals. This distinction proves crucial when examining the PSYWAR to PSYOP transition (Simpson, 1994).
During World War II, Psychological Warfare commanded attention as a standalone strategic capability. The Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and British Political Warfare Executive (PWE) both wielded PSYWAR as an independent instrument of national power, coordinating directly with supreme military commands. Operation FORTITUDE, the deception plan protecting the D-Day landings, exemplifies this strategic-level application – Psychological Warfare serving not as a supporting element but as a primary strategic lever (Daugherty & Janowitz, 1958).
The Formula Distinction: Maintaining Functional Clarity
While the narrative evolution from PSYWAR to PSYOP served important institutional purposes, maintaining both terms as distinct formulaic concepts offers significant operational value. Rather than viewing them as successive evolutionary stages, these terms can describe fundamentally different applications of psychological influence:
PSYWAR, in this framework, denotes instances where psychological influence serves as the primary strategic effort – cases where shaping perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors constitutes the main thrust of military activity. This designation applies when psychological influence represents the center of gravity for achieving strategic objectives, rather than supporting other military efforts.
PSYOP, conversely, describes instances where psychological influence activities support broader military objectives. In Vietnam, for instance, leaflet drops and propaganda broadcasts, while important, clearly served to support larger counterinsurgency efforts rather than standing as independent strategic initiatives (Goldstein & Findley, 1996).
Historical Evolution: The Institutional Context
The shift from PSYWAR to PSYOP reflected broader institutional changes in how Western militaries approached psychological influence. The establishment of the Psychological Warfare Center at Fort Bragg in 1952 marked a crucial step in institutionalizing these capabilities. Yet the center's evolution – eventually becoming the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center – reflected the growing emphasis on integrating psychological influence activities with other Special Operations capabilities.
The Kennedy administration particularly championed this shift, recognizing that terms like "Psychological Warfare" could compromise America's image as it engaged in what the president termed a "long twilight struggle" against communism. This narrative evolution reflected a sophisticated understanding that language shapes both internal capabilities and external perceptions. The establishment of the Special Group for Counterinsurgency (SGCI) in 1962 further institutionalized this shift, emphasizing Psychological Operations as part of a broader counterinsurgency framework (Paddock, 2009).
The Vietnam Watershed: Redefining Psychological Influence
The Vietnam War marked a crucial turning point in how Western militaries conceived of psychological influence. The conflict's complexity – blending Conventional Warfare, Counterinsurgency, and nation-building – demanded more sophisticated approaches to psychological influence.
The Military Assistance Command, Vietnam-Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG) exemplified this evolution. While officially conducting PSYOP, many of SOG's activities functioned as PSYWAR in formulaic terms – they were primary strategic efforts aimed at influencing North Vietnamese behavior and morale. This operational reality often clashed with institutional frameworks designed around PSYOP as a supporting capability (Schultz, 1999).
Strategic Defense Initiative: PSYWAR in the Space Age
Perhaps the most compelling modern example of PSYWAR as a primary strategic effort comes from the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as the "Star Wars" program. While narratively presented as a technological defense program, SDI functioned primarily as a sophisticated psychological influence campaign aimed at forcing Soviet strategic capitulation through economic exhaustion.
Launched by President Reagan in 1983, SDI represented psychological warfare operating at the highest strategic level. While the program involved actual research and development efforts, its primary strategic effect came not from technological achievements but from its psychological impact on Soviet leadership. The mere perception of possible American technological superiority in space-based missile defense compelled the Soviet Union to undertake economically ruinous military spending in response.
Several aspects of SDI demonstrate its status as “warfare-level” psychological influence:
Strategic Primacy: The psychological effect on Soviet decision-making represented the center of gravity, not the technical development of missile defense systems.
Independent Strategic Effect: The program achieved its strategic objectives (contributing to Soviet economic strain and eventual collapse) primarily through psychological rather than kinetic means.
High-Level Integration: The psychological aspects of SDI were coordinated at the highest levels of national strategy, not merely as supporting elements of a technical program.
Measurable Strategic Impact: Soviet responses to SDI, including increased military spending and diplomatic initiatives, demonstrated the program's effectiveness as a psychological influence campaign.
The SDI example particularly illuminates the distinction between warfare and operations-level psychological influence. While the program included supporting PSYOP elements (public affairs, strategic communications), its primary function exemplified PSYWAR – using psychological influence as a principal strategic tool rather than a supporting capability.
Contemporary Applications and Future Considerations
The implications of the warfare-operations distinction extend beyond traditional military domains. As Western militaries grapple with emerging forms of conflict – from hybrid warfare to gray zone operations – maintaining clear distinctions between primary strategic efforts and supporting capabilities becomes increasingly crucial.
Modern information warfare presents particularly relevant challenges. The proliferation of social media and digital communication platforms has created new opportunities for psychological influence. Yet, institutional frameworks often struggle to distinguish between strategic-level Information Warfare and tactical-level Information Operations. The warfare-operations framework offers potential clarity for these evolving capabilities (Paul, 2008).
Broader Doctrinal Implications
The warfare-operations distinction carries significant implications for broader military doctrine. This framework suggests the need to reexamine other doctrinal concepts where terms have evolved primarily for narrative rather than formulaic reasons. The distinction between warfare and operations provides a valuable analytical tool for understanding how military institutions conceptualize and execute various forms of conflict.
Implications for Special Operations and Irregular Warfare
The concept of Irregular Warfare presents a prime example of narrative-formula tension in military doctrine. Currently employed as an umbrella term encompassing various non-conventional military activities, the "warfare" designation suggests strategic primacy. Yet many activities labeled as Irregular Warfare functionally serve as supporting operations to conventional campaigns. This disconnect between narrative presentation and formulaic reality creates operational confusion and resource allocation challenges (Robinson, 2013).
The historical shift from "Special Warfare" to "Special Operations" similarly deserves reexamination. The term "Special Warfare," prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, implied a distinct form of warfare rather than merely specialized tactical capabilities. The transition to "Special Operations" reflected institutional preferences for integration with conventional forces but potentially obscured important strategic distinctions.
The recent resurgence of "Special Warfare" in Special Operations discussions suggests a recognition that certain Special Operations activities constitute primary strategic efforts rather than supporting capabilities. This renewed terminology aligns with the warfare-operations framework, providing a clearer distinction between strategic-level Special Warfare and supporting Special Operations.
Implementation Challenges
Implementing this conceptual framework faces several significant challenges:
Institutional Resistance: Organizations may resist reclassifying activities as "operations" when they have historically claimed warfare-level status.
Resource Implications: The warfare-operations distinction carries significant implications for resource allocation and command relationships.
Doctrinal Integration: Existing doctrine would require careful revision to incorporate these distinctions without creating additional confusion.
Training Requirements: Professional military education would need to incorporate these conceptual distinctions into leadership development.
Future Doctrinal Considerations
As military institutions continue to evolve, the warfare-operations framework offers potential benefits for emerging capabilities and domains. Future doctrine might benefit from explicitly recognizing both warfare and operations variants of key concepts. This approach would preserve important narrative distinctions while providing clearer formulaic guidance for operational employment. Consider these examples:
Information Warfare vs. Information Operations
Network Warfare vs. Network Operations
Influence Warfare vs. Influence Operations
Cyber Warfare vs. Cyber Operations
And perhaps the most contentious:
Irregular Warfare vs. Irregular Operations
Unconventional Warfare vs. Unconventional Operations
This dual categorization may help to clarify when activities serve as primary strategic efforts versus supporting capabilities. Such clarity becomes increasingly crucial as military operations expand into new domains and face emerging challenges.
The SDI example offers valuable lessons for implementing these distinctions in modern contexts. Just as SDI demonstrated how psychological influence could function as warfare-level effort while narratively presented as a technical program, modern military activities might similarly benefit from clearer distinction between warfare and operations-level applications.
Conclusion: Toward Doctrinal and Operational Clarity
The evolution from PSYWAR to PSYOP reveals fundamental tensions between narrative and formulaic requirements in military doctrine. The Narrative-Formula paradigm provides a framework for understanding these tensions and their implications for military operations. By recognizing and maintaining both warfare and operations as distinct concepts, military institutions can better align organizational structures with operational requirements.
The historical examples – from World War II through SDI – demonstrate the enduring value of distinguishing between psychological influence as a primary strategic effort versus a supporting capability. This distinction proves increasingly relevant as military institutions grapple with emerging forms of conflict and new operational domains.
Understanding these distinctions proves essential for effective military operations in the 21st century. By carefully examining the relationship between narrative evolution and formulaic requirements, military institutions can develop more sophisticated approaches to both doctrine and operations. This understanding enables:
Clearer strategic planning and resource allocation
More effective operational design and execution
Better alignment between institutional structures and operational requirements
Improved professional military education and leadership development
More sophisticated approaches to emerging military challenges
As warfare continues to evolve, maintaining clear distinctions between primary strategic efforts and supporting capabilities becomes increasingly crucial. The warfare-operations framework provides a foundation for this clarity, offering potential benefits across the spectrum of military activities.
References
Daugherty, W. E., & Janowitz, M. (1958). A Psychological Warfare Casebook. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Fitzgerald, F. (2000). Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War. Simon & Schuster.
Goldstein, F. L., & Findley, B. F. (1996). Psychological Operations: Principles and Case Studies. Air University Press.
Lord, C., & Barnett, F. R. (1989). Political Warfare and Psychological Operations: Rethinking the US Approach. National Defense University Press.
McLaurin, R. D. (1982). Military Propaganda: Psychological Warfare and Operations. Praeger.
Paddock, A. H. (1989). US Army Special Warfare: Its Origins. University Press of Kansas.
Paddock, A. H. (2009). Special Warfare: The Missing Link in US Strategy. National Defense University Press.
Paul, C. (2008). Information Operations: Doctrine and Practice. Praeger Security International.
Robinson, L. (2013). The Future of Special Operations Forces. Council on Foreign Relations Press.
Schultz, R. H. (1999). The Secret War Against Hanoi: The Untold Story of Spies, Saboteurs, and Covert Warriors in North Vietnam. HarperCollins.
Simpson, C. (1994). Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960. Oxford University Press.
Schweizer, P. (1994). Victory: The Reagan Administration's Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union. Atlantic Monthly Press.
Additional Credits
Credit for developing these concepts is due partly to discussions while lecturing for Dr. Shannon Houck’s Psychology of Influence course at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). While the Narrative-Formula paradigm existed prior to these exchanges, the theoretical application to the PSYWAR-PSYOP distinction was substantially refined through academic discourse with the students in this setting.
About the Author
CW5 Maurice "Duc" DuClos currently serves as a Guest Lecturer at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in Monterey, California. His professional background includes various positions at the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) Joint Special Operations University (JSOU), the U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School (USAJFKSWCS), 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne) and 2/75th Ranger Battalion.
The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official position of the United States Special Operations Command, Joint Special Operations University, or the Naval Postgraduate School.
