Lessons for Modern Special Operations
STRATEGY CENTRAL
For and By Practitioners
By Monte Erfourth - March 23, 2025
Introduction
In June 1940, merely two days after France capitulated to Nazi Germany, renowned American author John Steinbeck penned a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. He urged the administration to initiate "immediate, controlled, considered" propaganda efforts to counter the Axis powers. Steinbeck didn't just advocate for action; he took it upon himself to contribute to the cause by writing The Moon Is Down, a novel aimed at inspiring resistance within occupied Europe. The narrative unfolds in an unnamed European country, bearing resemblances to Norway, Denmark, and France, that has fallen under fascist occupation. The occupying forces, led by Colonel Lanser, grapple with the burgeoning defiance of the local populace. This literary work transcended borders, becoming a beacon of hope and a catalyst for resistance movements across Europe.
Steinbeck's Novel: A Catalyst for Resistance
Published in 1942, The Moon Is Down, was meticulously crafted to resonate with those under oppressive regimes. Steinbeck's portrayal of the occupiers as relatable individuals, rather than monolithic villains, added a layer of realism that deeply connected with readers. This nuanced depiction underscored the universal struggle for freedom and the inherent desire to resist subjugation. The novel was clandestinely translated into multiple languages, including Norwegian, Danish, French, and Dutch, and was covertly distributed across occupied territories. In France, for instance, the underground press lauded its impact, noting that its influence was "immense and incontestable." Similarly, in Norway, the book's significance was so profound that, in 1945, King Haakon VII honored Steinbeck with the Freedom Cross for his contribution to the resistance efforts.
The Role of Literature in Resistance Movements
Literature has long been a formidable tool in unifying and galvanizing oppressed populations. During World War II, works like The Moon Is Down served not only as morale boosters but also as instructional guides on subtle forms of defiance. In the novel, townspeople engage in acts of sabotage, such as disrupting railways—a tactic mirrored by real-life resistance groups. These narratives provided both psychological support and practical frameworks for resistance, reinforcing the idea that ordinary citizens could undermine occupying forces through coordinated efforts.
Beyond Steinbeck's work, two other notable examples of literature fueling resistance efforts include George Orwell’s Animal Farm and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s The Gulag Archipelago.
George Orwell’s Animal Farm: Published in 1945, Orwell’s allegorical novella was a direct critique of totalitarianism, specifically the rise of Soviet oppression under Stalin. While its message was aimed at Western readers, it was smuggled into the Eastern Bloc and served as a cautionary tale about autocratic rule. Underground activists used the book as a means to expose the dangers of unchecked political power and inspire intellectual resistance.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s The Gulag Archipelago: This landmark 1973 book documented the horrors of the Soviet labor camp system. Though banned in the USSR, it was circulated illegally in samizdat (self-published) form and profoundly impacted Soviet dissidents. It helped solidify opposition to the Communist regime and is credited with contributing to the ideological weakening of Soviet authority leading up to the 1980s.
Unconventional Warfare and Resistance Building
The success of The Moon Is Down in fostering resistance highlights a critical strategy in unconventional warfare: the empowerment of indigenous populations to resist and disrupt occupying or oppressive regimes. Contemporary Special Operations Forces (SOF) can draw valuable lessons from this historical precedent.
Case Study: The Ukrainian Resistance
The ongoing conflict in Ukraine exemplifies the application of resistance strategies in modern warfare. Ukrainian special operations forces have been instrumental in organizing and supporting partisan activities in territories occupied by opposing forces. These efforts include sabotage operations, intelligence gathering, and the dissemination of information to counter enemy propaganda. The establishment of the "Resistance Movement" (Rukh Oporu) within the Ukrainian Special Operations Forces underscores the institutionalization of resistance strategies in national defense doctrines.
The Importance of Cultural and Psychological Operations
Steinbeck's work underscores the significance of cultural and psychological operations in resistance movements. By crafting a narrative that resonated with occupied populations, he was able to inspire and mobilize individuals against their oppressors. Modern SOF can incorporate similar strategies by supporting the creation and dissemination of culturally relevant materials that promote resistance and resilience. This includes leveraging local art, literature, and media to foster a shared identity and purpose among the populace.
Two historical examples demonstrate how literature has been actively used in resistance-building efforts within unconventional warfare:
The U.S. Army’s Counterinsurgency Field Manual (FM 3-24): Published in 2006, this doctrine, largely shaped by General David Petraeus, provided guidance on how U.S. forces should engage in insurgency-prone areas, including the Middle East. It emphasized the importance of understanding local populations and shaping narratives to win over civilian populations, which aligns with how literature and information operations support resistance-building.
Leaflet Campaigns in Afghanistan: During the U.S. war in Afghanistan, psychological operations (PSYOP) units dropped millions of leaflets containing narratives that encouraged resistance against the Taliban. These ranged from personal stories of Afghan soldiers fighting for their country to messages directly countering Taliban propaganda. The strategic use of written materials served to reinforce local resistance movements and bolster national morale.
Challenges and Considerations
While building resistance movements offers strategic advantages, it also presents challenges. Ensuring the legitimacy and popular support of these movements is crucial to their success. Additionally, SOF must navigate complex political landscapes to avoid unintended consequences, such as empowering groups with agendas counter to U.S. interests or regional stability.
Conclusion
John Steinbeck’s The Moon Is Down serves as a poignant reminder of the power of narrative in resistance movements. Its impact during World War II illustrates how literature can inspire and guide oppressed populations in their struggle against tyranny. For modern Special Operations Forces, the lessons from this historical example emphasize the importance of cultural understanding, psychological operations, and the empowerment of indigenous resistance elements in unconventional warfare. By integrating these principles, SOF can effectively support threatened nations in building resilient and capable resistance movements.
Works Cited
Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Harcourt, 1945.
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr. The Gulag Archipelago. Harper & Row, 1973.
Steinbeck, John. The Moon Is Down. Viking Press, 1942.
U.S. Army. Counterinsurgency Field Manual (FM 3-24). University of Chicago Press, 2006.
U.S. Department of Defense. Psychological Operations: Principles and Considerations. Joint Special Operations University, 2015.
"Resistance Movements in Ukraine." Foreign Policy Journal, 2023, www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/ukraine-resistance.
"The Moon Is Down and WWII Resistance." HistoryNet, 2022, www.historynet.com/moon-is-down.
"How Literature Inspired Underground Movements in the Eastern Bloc." New York Times, 2021, www.nytimes.com/underground-literature.
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